SSUSH7 Students will explain the process of economic growth, its regional and national impact in the first half of the 19th century, and the different responses to it.
Overview: The War of 1812 marked the beginning of America’s transition from an agrarian nation to an industrial power. Stymied by on-going war and blockades between France and her enemies in the first years of the 19th century, Americans began developing its own native means of industrial production that were not dependent on European imports. At the same time Americans began moving westward into the Ohio Valley and beyond the Mississippi. In addition to the California Gold Rush was “Oregon Fever” in which families moved westward in hopes of free or cheap land in Washington and Oregon. Thus, America’s great economic prosperity in the early 19th century had both national and regional impact. This prosperity allowed Americans to reflect on social problems and to seek reforms that took hold in some regions more easily than in others. |
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a. Explain the impact of the Industrial Revolution as seen in Eli Whitney’s invention of the cotton gin and his development of interchangeable parts for muskets.
The era known as the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the 18th century when the country began the transformation from purely agrarian to a modern industrial and commercial economy. Soon hand-made and home-made goods were replaced by machine made and factory made goods and power-driven machines operated by semi-skilled or unskilled workers came to replace skilled laborers. The Industrial Revolution made its way to the United States in 1793 with the completion of Samuel Slater’s water powered textile mill in Rhode Island. Real impetus for the change to a industrialized economy came in the first decade of the 19th century as the Napoleonic Wars interfered with America’s exports to European markets and its imports from Great Britain. The inability of the American Army to effectively arm itself for defense coupled with the desire not to be subject to the uncertainties of European international relations caused Americans to seek ways to improve the national economy.
As in England, the success of the Industrial Revolution was aided by four factors. First, transportation was expanded (See USH 6d). Second, a power source was effectively harnessed (water-power and, shortly thereafter, steam power). Third, improvements were made to industrial processes such as improving the refining process and accelerating production. Lastly, the government helped protect fledgling American manufacturers by passing protective tariffs.
Eli Whitney and the Industrial Revolution
American inventor Eli Whitney best illustrates the rise of industrialism with his invention of the cotton gin and his development of interchangeable parts for muskets. Whitney invented the cotton gin in 1793. It is a machine that rapidly removes cotton plant seeds from the valuable cotton fiber used to make thread and fabric. By producing more cotton in a day than any person could do by hand, the gin reduced the cost of processing cotton and greatly raised the profit from growing it. To further cut costs and raise profits, unskilled slaves were often put to work running the cotton gins in the southern states.
Another industrial improvement Whitney developed was interchangeable parts. Prior to industrialization, a broken mechanism or machine had to be discarded and replaced because all its parts had been handmade by skilled workers to fit only that mechanism. Whitney introduced the practice of manufacturing identical parts so only the broken part would need to be replaced to repair the whole machine. He applied this process to making muskets. If one piece of the musket’s mechanism broke, the owner could continue to use the musket after that piece was replaced with a matching piece. Interchangeable parts made it possible for semiskilled workers to mass- produce mechanical products.
As in England, the success of the Industrial Revolution was aided by four factors. First, transportation was expanded (See USH 6d). Second, a power source was effectively harnessed (water-power and, shortly thereafter, steam power). Third, improvements were made to industrial processes such as improving the refining process and accelerating production. Lastly, the government helped protect fledgling American manufacturers by passing protective tariffs.
Eli Whitney and the Industrial Revolution
American inventor Eli Whitney best illustrates the rise of industrialism with his invention of the cotton gin and his development of interchangeable parts for muskets. Whitney invented the cotton gin in 1793. It is a machine that rapidly removes cotton plant seeds from the valuable cotton fiber used to make thread and fabric. By producing more cotton in a day than any person could do by hand, the gin reduced the cost of processing cotton and greatly raised the profit from growing it. To further cut costs and raise profits, unskilled slaves were often put to work running the cotton gins in the southern states.
Another industrial improvement Whitney developed was interchangeable parts. Prior to industrialization, a broken mechanism or machine had to be discarded and replaced because all its parts had been handmade by skilled workers to fit only that mechanism. Whitney introduced the practice of manufacturing identical parts so only the broken part would need to be replaced to repair the whole machine. He applied this process to making muskets. If one piece of the musket’s mechanism broke, the owner could continue to use the musket after that piece was replaced with a matching piece. Interchangeable parts made it possible for semiskilled workers to mass- produce mechanical products.
b. Describe the westward growth of the United States; include the emerging concept of Manifest Destiny.
Westward Movement
Americans have always looked westward. As the coastal plains filled, colonists arriving from Europe sought unclaimed land in the backcountry of each colony. After the French and Indian War, settlers crossed the Appalachians and entered the Tennessee and Ohio River Basins. After the American Revolution, settlers began to fill the Ohio Valley and moved out into western Georgia and Alabama. The conclusion of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 doubled the size of America’s land holdings and brought new opportunities to move westward into the Mississippi River Valley. Florida, the last piece of foreign held territory in the east was acquired in 1819 from Spain. By 1850, Americans had settled California, Oregon and Washington. The process of settlement took 150 years to reach the Appalachians, 50 years to reach the Mississippi and another 30 years to settle the Pacific states. In 230 years, Americans had come to dominate the continent. Americans believed such rapid expansion must have been a result of divine favor referred to as Manifest Destiny.
Manifest Destiny was a phrase coined to describe the belief that America was to expand and settle the entire continent of North America. The phrase originated in 1845 when John L. O’Sullivan, a newspaper editor, wrote that it was America’s "Manifest Destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions."
The center of population growth in the years after the War of 1812 was in future states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and northern Kentucky. In this region three factors encouraged families in the eastern states to move into the Midwest. First, Native Americans were removed from the region. Second, land speculators had acquired large tracts of land and were eager to sell. Third, as the national infrastructure moved westward it was easier to migrate west. Although interest rates on land were high, so were grain prices throughout the 1830’s and 1840’s. Fertile soil and the development of better plows and harvesters allowing farmers large crops yields and increasing the allure of westward expansion.
Americans have always looked westward. As the coastal plains filled, colonists arriving from Europe sought unclaimed land in the backcountry of each colony. After the French and Indian War, settlers crossed the Appalachians and entered the Tennessee and Ohio River Basins. After the American Revolution, settlers began to fill the Ohio Valley and moved out into western Georgia and Alabama. The conclusion of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 doubled the size of America’s land holdings and brought new opportunities to move westward into the Mississippi River Valley. Florida, the last piece of foreign held territory in the east was acquired in 1819 from Spain. By 1850, Americans had settled California, Oregon and Washington. The process of settlement took 150 years to reach the Appalachians, 50 years to reach the Mississippi and another 30 years to settle the Pacific states. In 230 years, Americans had come to dominate the continent. Americans believed such rapid expansion must have been a result of divine favor referred to as Manifest Destiny.
Manifest Destiny was a phrase coined to describe the belief that America was to expand and settle the entire continent of North America. The phrase originated in 1845 when John L. O’Sullivan, a newspaper editor, wrote that it was America’s "Manifest Destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions."
The center of population growth in the years after the War of 1812 was in future states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and northern Kentucky. In this region three factors encouraged families in the eastern states to move into the Midwest. First, Native Americans were removed from the region. Second, land speculators had acquired large tracts of land and were eager to sell. Third, as the national infrastructure moved westward it was easier to migrate west. Although interest rates on land were high, so were grain prices throughout the 1830’s and 1840’s. Fertile soil and the development of better plows and harvesters allowing farmers large crops yields and increasing the allure of westward expansion.
c. Describe reform movements, specifically temperance, abolitionism, and public school.
In the 1820’s a Second Great Awakening arose in America. While the movement itself is not the subject of this element, one of the effects of the movement was a desire by Christians to attack perceived social ills in 19th century America.
Temperance
The stress of an industrial environment, poor quality of water, and cheapness of liquor all contributed to an increase in alcohol consumption during this period. The temperance movement grew out of a desire to protect women and children from abuse and general poverty associated with the workingman spending his pay on drink. Temperance movements originally attempted to get people to drink less (temper their drinking) but quickly moved to pledges of abstaining from drinking. In the beginning of the period, there were many temperance societies, but around 1835 most merged into the American Temperance Society. The movement was successful in reducing the amount of alcohol consumed but fell short of gaining the total abolishment of drinking in the United States.
Abolitionism
Probably the most heated reform issue in America was the abolition of slavery. Abolishment movements had existed in America since the colonial period. Their popularity waned after the American Revolution. Renewed interest in the abolition of slavery began in the 1830’s. Three groups emerged during this period. One group the American Colonization Society (1818) called for the emancipation and transportation of freed slaves back to Africa. The second group, The American Antislavery Society (1833), led by William Lloyd Garrison called for immediate emancipation by any means necessary. A moderate group, the Liberty Party, had pledged to end slavery through legal and political means.
Public School
Until the 1840’s, there was little public education. Only the wealthy educated their children. Reformers believed that in order for democracy to be effective an educated population would be needed. Horace Mann of Massachusetts, along with Henry Barnard of Connecticut, began the Common School Movement. The Common School Movement hoped to create good citizens, unite society and prevent crime and poverty. Mann advocated a free public education, financed by local funds, and administered by a local school board and superintendent. This model is essentially the one used in America today.
Temperance
The stress of an industrial environment, poor quality of water, and cheapness of liquor all contributed to an increase in alcohol consumption during this period. The temperance movement grew out of a desire to protect women and children from abuse and general poverty associated with the workingman spending his pay on drink. Temperance movements originally attempted to get people to drink less (temper their drinking) but quickly moved to pledges of abstaining from drinking. In the beginning of the period, there were many temperance societies, but around 1835 most merged into the American Temperance Society. The movement was successful in reducing the amount of alcohol consumed but fell short of gaining the total abolishment of drinking in the United States.
Abolitionism
Probably the most heated reform issue in America was the abolition of slavery. Abolishment movements had existed in America since the colonial period. Their popularity waned after the American Revolution. Renewed interest in the abolition of slavery began in the 1830’s. Three groups emerged during this period. One group the American Colonization Society (1818) called for the emancipation and transportation of freed slaves back to Africa. The second group, The American Antislavery Society (1833), led by William Lloyd Garrison called for immediate emancipation by any means necessary. A moderate group, the Liberty Party, had pledged to end slavery through legal and political means.
Public School
Until the 1840’s, there was little public education. Only the wealthy educated their children. Reformers believed that in order for democracy to be effective an educated population would be needed. Horace Mann of Massachusetts, along with Henry Barnard of Connecticut, began the Common School Movement. The Common School Movement hoped to create good citizens, unite society and prevent crime and poverty. Mann advocated a free public education, financed by local funds, and administered by a local school board and superintendent. This model is essentially the one used in America today.
d. Explain women’s efforts to gain suffrage; include Elizabeth Cady Stanton and the Seneca Falls Conference.
Women’s Rights
Women in the early 1800s were legally and socially inferior to men. Women could not vote and, if married, could not own property or retain their own earnings. Women were leaders in the reform movements such as the temperance and abolitionist movements. However, in the 1840’s a number of prominent women activists were denied access to the London World Anti-Slavery Convention because they were women. These women, including Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, and the Grimke Sisters (Angelina and Sarah) became outspoken advocates for women’s equality. With the advent of universal male suffrage, women began to hope that suffrage would be extended to them.
To push toward their ideas, Stanton and Mott organized a meeting “to discuss the social, civil, and religious condition and rights of woman." The conference was held in Seneca Falls, New York on July 19-20, 1848. The meeting was attended by 300 people including 40 men. Curiously, none of the women felt that they could preside over the meeting so Mott’s husband initially led the conference. Stanton drafted the Declaration of Sentiments, modeling her work after the Declaration of Independence. Stanton’s Declaration called for an end to the unequal treatment of women. In addition, Stanton drafted eleven other resolutions dealing with women’s equality. Her ninth resolution which called for women to have the right to vote nearly failed but Frederick Douglass gave a speech which persuaded the delegates to vote for the proposal. One hundred men and women signed the declaration. The Seneca Falls Conference marked the beginning of the Women’s Rights Movement.
Women in the early 1800s were legally and socially inferior to men. Women could not vote and, if married, could not own property or retain their own earnings. Women were leaders in the reform movements such as the temperance and abolitionist movements. However, in the 1840’s a number of prominent women activists were denied access to the London World Anti-Slavery Convention because they were women. These women, including Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, and the Grimke Sisters (Angelina and Sarah) became outspoken advocates for women’s equality. With the advent of universal male suffrage, women began to hope that suffrage would be extended to them.
To push toward their ideas, Stanton and Mott organized a meeting “to discuss the social, civil, and religious condition and rights of woman." The conference was held in Seneca Falls, New York on July 19-20, 1848. The meeting was attended by 300 people including 40 men. Curiously, none of the women felt that they could preside over the meeting so Mott’s husband initially led the conference. Stanton drafted the Declaration of Sentiments, modeling her work after the Declaration of Independence. Stanton’s Declaration called for an end to the unequal treatment of women. In addition, Stanton drafted eleven other resolutions dealing with women’s equality. Her ninth resolution which called for women to have the right to vote nearly failed but Frederick Douglass gave a speech which persuaded the delegates to vote for the proposal. One hundred men and women signed the declaration. The Seneca Falls Conference marked the beginning of the Women’s Rights Movement.
e. Explain Jacksonian Democracy, expanding suffrage, the rise of popular political culture, and the development of American nationalism.
The development of American nationalism
After the War of 1812, the United States entered a period of introspection. America’s leaders were determined never to be dragged into another international crisis that also, through partisan political politics, nearly split the Union. The period became known as the “Era of Good Feelings” and was dominated by one political party, the Democratic Republicans. The critical feeling of the period was to promote and strengthen the United States by focusing on internal improvements.
The rise of popular political culture
During the “Era of Good Feelings”, campaigning was generally a tepid affair with regional candidates promoting regional issues. The inconclusive “favorite son” election of 1824 and resultant “corrupt bargain” gave rise, once again, to a two-party system—the Jacksonian Democrats and the National Republicans (led by John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay). Jackson’s presidential campaigns caused an increase in public participation in politics, and things got rough. Jackson’s side accused his opponent of flattering European royalty and of misusing public funds. The opponent accused Jackson of unfaithfulness in his marriage, of massacring Native Americans, of illegally executing convicted soldiers, and of dueling. These accusations were publicized in songs, pamphlets, posters, and lapel buttons. A voter could find all these at the first-ever campaign rallies and barbecues.
Jacksonian Democracy
President Andrew Jackson and his supporters shared a political philosophy later referred to as “Jacksonian Democracy.” It sought a stronger presidency and executive branch, and a weaker Congress. Out of respect for the common man, it also sought to broaden public participation in government, so it expanded voting rights to Include all adult white males, not just landowners. Another principle of Jacksonian democracy was that politicians should be allowed to appoint their followers to government jobs as a way of limiting the power of elite groups. Jacksonians also favored Manifest Destiny and greater westward expansion of the United States.
After the War of 1812, the United States entered a period of introspection. America’s leaders were determined never to be dragged into another international crisis that also, through partisan political politics, nearly split the Union. The period became known as the “Era of Good Feelings” and was dominated by one political party, the Democratic Republicans. The critical feeling of the period was to promote and strengthen the United States by focusing on internal improvements.
- After the first bank charter lapsed, regional banks printed their own currency without the backing of specie. The War of 1812 exposed these weak currencies and many investors and depositors were left without recourse when local banks failed. Furthermore, local banks had refused to honor federal bank notes making it difficult for the federal government to pay the army and purchase supplies. During this period of growing nationalism, national finances were strengthened through the creation of a new national bank that served as a depository for federal funds and stable source of currency.
- A new tariff was passed in order to protect American industry from what was seen as unfair trade practices by British manufacturers who had a reputation of dumping cheaply produced goods on American markets to the detriment of American manufacturers.
- The Supreme Court strengthened the federal government’s power through a series of critical court decisions that backed the power of the new national bank to regulate finances.
- The expansion of the nation westward was eased through new federal land purchasing policies that made purchasing a homestead easier. New roads, canals, and river improvements were made so that western farmers could market products in the growing eastern cities.
The rise of popular political culture
During the “Era of Good Feelings”, campaigning was generally a tepid affair with regional candidates promoting regional issues. The inconclusive “favorite son” election of 1824 and resultant “corrupt bargain” gave rise, once again, to a two-party system—the Jacksonian Democrats and the National Republicans (led by John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay). Jackson’s presidential campaigns caused an increase in public participation in politics, and things got rough. Jackson’s side accused his opponent of flattering European royalty and of misusing public funds. The opponent accused Jackson of unfaithfulness in his marriage, of massacring Native Americans, of illegally executing convicted soldiers, and of dueling. These accusations were publicized in songs, pamphlets, posters, and lapel buttons. A voter could find all these at the first-ever campaign rallies and barbecues.
Jacksonian Democracy
President Andrew Jackson and his supporters shared a political philosophy later referred to as “Jacksonian Democracy.” It sought a stronger presidency and executive branch, and a weaker Congress. Out of respect for the common man, it also sought to broaden public participation in government, so it expanded voting rights to Include all adult white males, not just landowners. Another principle of Jacksonian democracy was that politicians should be allowed to appoint their followers to government jobs as a way of limiting the power of elite groups. Jacksonians also favored Manifest Destiny and greater westward expansion of the United States.